Teaching Of Thinking

Various programs exist to teach thinking skills directly. Several of the more prominent programs are highlighted below. More comprehensive descriptions can be found in Developing Minds: Programs for Teaching Thinking, Revised Edition, Volume 2, edited by Arthur Costa and published by ASCD, 1991. (available from ASCD)

Thinking skill strategy charts and graphic organizers are available from Nancy Skerritt. Skerritt has identified twenty cognitive processes such as sequencing, inferring, and detecting bias and has designed teaching tools that define each thinking skill, provided a metacognitive strategy for doing the thinking skill, and included a graphic organizer that reflects the thinking process. Three examples of these graphic organizers can be found and printed on this website in the Thinking Skills Tool Chest.

Programs for Teaching Thinking Skills

Thinking Maps: developed by David Hyerle
The goal of this program is to teach students to use graphic organizers for six fundamental thinking processes to enhance content-learning. For example, students learn to use flowcharts to reflect sequencing and cause/effect relationships and bridge maps for seeing analogies. Target population are students in grades 5-7, but the material is applicable across all grades. This program is available from Innovative Sciences, Inc. 300 Broad Street, Park Square Station, P.O. Box 15129, Stanford, Connecticut, 06901-0129. Phone 800 243 9169. (See also Visual Tools for Constructing Knowledge and online ordering information.)

Dimensions of Learning: developed by R.J. Marzano, D.J. Pickering, et al
This program provides an instructional framework that integrates the teaching of thinking (K-12) into the content areas. Six dimensions of thinking are identified, including habits of mind, metacognition, and various thinking processes that support students in constructing, integrating, and refining knowledge. Students are taught skills in each dimension which then are transferred to all relevant content applications. ASCD (look under books or videos or search using Dimensions of Learning) publishes Dimensions of Learning including books, training manuals, and video tapes. Institutes are offered regularly at the national level to provide staff development.

Instrumental Enrichment: developed by Reuven Feuerstein
The goal of this program is to develop thinking and problem solving skills to become autonomous learners. Target population includes upper elementary through high school. Students do paper and pencil "instruments" focused on various cognitive skills like inductive and deductive reasoning. The teacher mediates the students' work with the skills which are not subject specific. This program requires two to three hours per week plus transfer to content over a two to three year period. This program is available online from Skylight Professional Development.)

CoRT Thinking Program: developed by Edward de Bono (see a second website about Edward de Bono)
Edward de Bono originated the notion of lateral thinking, thinking "outside of the box" and designed a program with six major components. CoRT Level 1 is probably the most used level. Students learn operations or tools like P-M-I (Pluses-Minuses-Interesting Possibilities) to evaluation situations and enhance problem-solving abilities. The program is appropriate for ages 8 to adults and addresses all ability levels. Implementation time is one thirty-five minute lesson, or longer, per week for three years to teach all sixty tools in the program's six levels.

HOTS: developed by Stanley Pogrow
Higher Order Thinking Skills are developed using computers and familiar software programs like The Oregon Trail. Students are asked mediating questions by trained facilitators who guide students in constructing meaning through problem solving. The activities develop the skills of metacognition, inference, decontextualization, and information synthesis skills relevant to learning any content. The program requires 35 minutes per day, four days a week, for two years. The HOTS program is available from Stanley Pogrow, Room 109, College of Education, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, 85721. Phone 520 621 9374 or 800 999 0153. (see also AEL on HOTS)

Philosophy for Children: developed by Matthew Lipman
This program targets reasoning abilities and metacognition to improving thinking. Students read special novels written for the program and the teacher facilitates a discussion using structured plans, exercises, and games. Students learn skills like drawing inferences, making analogies, and forming hypotheses as they explore philosophical issues such as truth, fairness, and personal identity through the readings. The intended audience is kindergarten through high school. Time recommended is three 40-minute periods per week. This program is available from the Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy for Children, Montclair State College, Upper Montclair, New Jersey, 07043. Phone 201 655 4277.

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